Since most Middle Easterners are Muslims, the discussion should begin with the exceptions. In Egypt, a large Coptic Christian community has maintained itself since biblical times. It now makes up more than ten percent of the population. There are also important Christian communities divided among a variety of different denominations in Israel, Lebanon, and Syria. Smaller groups of Assyrian and Armenian Christians persist in Turkey, Iran, and Iraq. The several million Jews of Israel make up another major exception. Before the establishment of Israel, there were important Jewish populations in many Arab countries and Iran. Most subsequently migrated to Israel. The numbers in the Middle East outside Israel are now small.

The Muslim community may seem united on some issues, but internally it is riven by many divisions. The most critical distinction is between the Sunnis (the followers of the custom or the “sunna” of the prophet) and Shi’a (those who separated) The Shi’a consider themselves to be the followers of Ali, the prophet’s son-in-law, and his descendants). Most Muslims are Sunnis, except in Iran, which was converted by persuasive means to Shi’ism in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

The Sunnis are, in turn, divided into four schools of law, as well as other sectarian divisions. The most fundamentalist are the Wahhabis that came to dominate Arabia under the Saudis. “Salafi” is sometimes interchangeable with “Wahhabi” (not a term they use themselves). The goal of Salafi is to return all Islamic peoples to the ways of the earliest Muslims. Salafi, or groups with similar fundamentalist beliefs, have now spread throughout the Islamic world. It is important to note that many Salafi believe that Shi’a of any type are heretics and deserve death as much as any other heathens. (This makes it difficult for Iranian fundamentalists to make common cause with those of other Islamic countries.) Figures seem hard to come by, but apparently most Sunnis do not identify with fundamentalists outside Saudi Arabia.

The Shi’a are also divided. The Ithna ‘Ashariya (Twelver) sect is dominant in most Shi’a communities, especially in Iran and Iraq. Other important sub-sects are the Zaidis, who dominated Yemen in the past, the Ismailis, and others. The line of succession was the occasion for each of these splinters, the very issue on which the Shi’a had separated from the dominant Sunni community in the seventh century. Under several successive Aga Khans the Ismailis have been instrumental in the establishment or maintenance of a number of Islamic populations in Africa and even Central Asia. The Druze that now form an embattled community in Lebanon, as well as a noted minority in Israel are the result of a more distinct and syncretic Shi’a movement in the Middle Ages. A larger but lesser known sect of mixed Islamic and pre-islamic origin is the Alevi movement that includes perhaps 25% of the Turkish population, as well as several millions living in Iran or Iraq. In Turkey, at least, Turkish is used as the sacred language of the Alevi (Arabic is used elsewhere by Muslims of all nationalities much as Latin used to be used by Christians). The Alawites (not to be confused with the Alevis) are similar to the Druze both in origin and in their reluctance to discuss beliefs and ceremonies. They do not worship in public and their beliefs are not publicized. They regard Ali and his descendants as divine, a heretical belief for other Muslims. Most live in Syria, although there are a few in Turkey and Lebanon. They make up only ten percent of the population, but under the Baath they attained political and military positions in Syria and are now politically dominant.

The Islamic community is also crosscut by the adherence of many Muslims to one or another Sufi path. Taking a more mystical and personal approach to Islam than the orthodox ulema (religious leaders), Sufis are divided into many orders. Some trace their origins back to founding holy men living many centuries ago. Although some experts see the origin of Sufism in Shi’a Islam, today, at least, Sufis seem to be more widely accepted in the Sunni community. They tend in most cases to be looked at with disfavor by both the traditional ulema and governments. Although Sufis are generally considered pacific, this is by no means always the case. While most Sufis try to stay neutral, some orders and parts of orders are fighting on one or another side in the Iraq conflict. Massoud Barzani, one of the two top Kurdish leaders, is reported to be a member of a Sufi order. Sufi orders are said to be highly respected by traditional Islamic leaders in Afghanistan, as well as by the general populace that regard Sufi leaders as members of the ulema. They are frequently seen as more impartial than other religious figures. Unfortunately, actual numbers of Sufi adherents seem hard to come by.